ISSN:1076–9005
Volume 6, 1999

A Buddhist View of Women: A Comparative Study of the Rules for Bhik.su.niis and Bhik.sus Based on the Chinese Praatimok.sa

Abstract

A generalized view of women in Buddhism is imposed by almost one hundred additional rules and the "Eight Rules" upon nuns. Some scholars, writers, and practitioners have asserted that the rules in the PrĀtimok.sa subordinate nuns to monks. However, I argue that the additional pĀrĀjikas for nuns treat sexual matters seriously because of the fertility of females. Some sa.mghĀva"se.sas for nuns provide safeguards against falling victim to lustful men. Some ni.hsargika-pĀyantikas for monks forbid them from taking advantage of nuns. Two aniyatas for monks show a landmark in trust in women. Furthermore, seven adhikara.na"samathas provide evidence of the equality of men and women. Many of the additional pĀyantikas for nuns originated because of nuns' living situations and social conditions in ancient India. Finally, the totally different tone and discrepancies in penalties for the same offenses between the pĀyantikas and the "Eight Rules" suggest that the "Eight Rules" were appended later.

INTRODUCTION

I will make known the course of training for monks, founded on ten reasons: for the excellence of the Order, for the comfort of the Order, for the restraint of evil-minded men, for the ease of well-behaved monks, for the restraint of the cankers belonging to the here and now, for the combating of the cankers belonging to other worlds, for the benefit of non-believers, for the increase in the number of believers, for establishing dhamma indeed, for following the rules of restraint. Thus, monks, this course of training should be set forth.(1)

Vinaya-Pi.taka

There is a generalized view of women in Buddhism implied in the Buddhist monastic rules for bhik.su.niis(2) and bhik.sus(3) in the vinaya.(4) Referring to the monastic rules for bhik.su.niis, most Buddhist scholars, writers and practitioners agree that the rules in the vinaya subordinated the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha(5) to the Bhik.su Sa"ngha.(6) Many people are also potentially misled into thinking that the rules in the vinaya are unfairly more harsh for bhik.su.niis because of the larger number of rules, including the "Eight Rules,"(7) which are only for bhik.su.niis. In addition, many bhik.sus and even bhik.su.niis believe that bhik.su.niis must be subordinated to bhik.sus because of the prescriptions set forth in the Eight Rules. As a result, some Buddhist scholars, writers, and practitioners claim that bhik.su.niis as women have been discriminated against in the monastic rules. For example, Kate Wheeler asserts:

He [Gautama Buddha] required nuns to submit to Eight Special Rules(8) explicitly subjugating them to monks . . . and later added at least 84 additional precepts for nuns on top of the monks' 227, often stipulating worse penalties for similar infractions.(9)

Diana Y. Paul explains the vinaya:

The first text translated below describes the subordination of the nun's community to that of the monks, indicating the lack of autonomy among the women's community and their subsequent deprivation of the power to define their religious obligations along norms that they themselves established. Unlike the Christian organizational structure of nuns which was separate from that of monks, the Buddhist nuns in ancient Indian society were accountable to the monks, and their organizational structure was subordinate to that of the monks. They were directly governed by the monks at joint meetings of both orders.(10)

Rita M. Gross also describes the vinaya rules as:

. . . placing all nuns lower in the hierarchy than any monks . . . .(11)

Nancy Schuster Barnes explains the rules:

However, by imposing rules on nuns which would place them in a permanently inferior position in all their interactions with monks, the monks reserved for themselves the control and leadership of the entire sa"ngha.(12)

Richard H. Robinson and Willard L. Johnson say:

The Blessed One [Gautama Buddha] conceded that women are able to attain arhant-ship but laid eight special regulations on the nuns, subordinating them strictly to the Order of Monks.(13)

Susan Murcott mentions:

The nun's sa"ngha modeled itself after the monks' sa"ngha, only the nuns' rules and regulations were stricter. The purpose of these stricter rules was to keep women's supposedly more wayward nature under control and to keep final authority in the hands of the monks.(14)

Richard Gombrich contends:

. . . [T]here were two social hierarchies he [Gautama Buddha] never questioned: age and sex.(15)

Uma Chakravarti comments:

A wide range of restrictions were placed on bhik.su.niis, who were even required to offer their alms to the monks if they ran into them.(16)

Audrey Mck. Fernandez mentions:

However, even today there are a couple of hundred more rules for women than men, which has rankled women and has kept who knows how many from leaving lay life.(17)

Although most Buddhist scholars and writers contend that bhik.su.niis were subordinated to bhik.sus by having so many additional rules and the Eight Rules imposed upon them, I disagree. Rather, a close and comparative examination of the Buddhist monastic rules for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus reveals a compassionate and practical regulation of the daily monastic life of both men and women, based on the realities of life at the time the rules were formulated. This is seen in the meticulous care and compassionate understanding of women's "alms life"(18) in the vinaya. It is perhaps a mistake to depend solely on the existence of the additional monastic rules for bhik.su.niis, without examining their origin or social context, to form a generalized Buddhist view of women.

Therefore, the main purpose of this paper is to examine the rules for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus in the PrĀtimok.sa.(19) I believe that the guidelines for discipline set down in the rules in the Bhik.su.nii and the Bhik.su PrĀtimok.sas allow us to infer a Buddhist attitude toward women. This paper, by comparing the rules for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, presents a different interpretation of the rules.

The text used in this paper is primarily from the Chinese Ssu fen lu, the vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka School.(20) However, because no English translation of the Chinese Ssu fen lu is available, when the rules are the same in both the Chinese and the PĀli Vinayas,(21) I prefer to use an English translation of the PĀli vinaya because this text is easily accessible to Westerners. According to W. Pachow,

The Dharmaguptaka [vinaya] follows very closely the PĀli texts in most cases, not merely in numbering the series but also in contents, except the VII section in which, it adds 26 prohibitory rules regarding the Stuupa.(22) And that is unique among all the available texts.(23)

E. Frauwallner also says that the Dharmaguptaka vinaya is one of the most complete and well preserved of the vinayas. Its numbers and contents are very close to those of the PĀli vinaya.(24) Sukumar Dutt says:

The most complete body of the monastic laws, however, is to be found in the Vinayapi.taka of the TheravĀda PĀli canon.(25)

Chatsumarn Kabilsingh also explains that although there is no definite proof that the PĀli vinaya is the oldest and the only original text, through a comparative study of the rules in six vinaya schools,(26) she suggests that the PĀli vinaya did not have any rules added to it later as did the other vinayas, and that its contents are very old because the rules in the PĀli vinaya are always shared with either one or more of the other schools.(27) The PĀli vinaya has been transmitted by the TheravĀda School and is observed by TheravĀdin bhik.sus today. The translations of the PĀli vinaya available in English are: Hermann Oldenberg's translation,(28) T. W. Rhys David's and H. Oldenberg's(29) and I. B. Horner's.(30)

On the other hand, the Dharmaguptaka vinaya was translated into the Chinese as the Ssu fen lu tsung or Caturvaga vinaya by Buddhayasas with Chu Fo-nien, possibly between 410 and 412 C. E. in the capital of China, Ch'ang-an.(31) The Chinese Ssu fen lu (vinaya of the Four Divisions) consists of four parts: Bhik.su-vibha"nga,(32) Bhik.su.nii-vibha"nga,(33) Skandhaka,(34) and the appendices. The Ssu fen lu has been very influential and widely used in East Asian Buddhist countries.

The PrĀtimok.sa of Dharmaguptaka was used in all convents of China as the disciplinary code. Beside, the vinaya school (Ssu-fen-Lu tsung), founded in China by Tao-hsuan, also accepted the disciplinary rules of the Dharmaguptaka as the most authoritative work.(35)

The rules contained in the Ssu fen lu are still observed by the Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis today. Even though the only Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha existing in the world is in the tradition of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya, so far as I have been able to discover the Chinese Ssu fen lu is not available in English, particularly the rules for bhik.su.niis. In her book A Comparative Study of Bhikkhunii PĀ.timokkha, Kabilsingh says that she used the Chinese Dharmagutaka vinaya which had been translated into Thai.(36) In the following, I give the meanings of the rules, rather than translating word for word. In order to understand the rules more easily, I have included comparative tables of the rules for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus side by side in each category of the PrĀtimok.sas.

The PrĀtimok.sa is a collection of monastic rules contained in the vinaya Pi.taka(37) (Basket of Discipline), one of the three large collections of the Buddhist canon known as the Tripi.taka. In addition to the vinaya Pi.taka, the Tripi.taka includes the Suutra Pi.taka (Basket of Discourses), and the Abhidharma Pi.taka (Basket of the Special Teaching). Many scholars have explained the possible meaning of the Sanskrit word PrĀtimok.sa(PĀli: PĀ.timokkha), but these explains remain speculative. Sukumar Dutt and Gokuldas De, who represent the majority opinion, say:

PĀ.timokkha . . . can be equated to Skt. PrĀtimok.sa, which from its etymological parts lends itself to interpretation as something serving for a bond, the prefix prĀti meaning "against" and the root mok.sa meaning "scattering," though I have not been able to discover any instance of the use of the word precisely in this sense in Sanskrit.(38)

The term 'PĀ.timokkha' is best derived from the word 'mok.sa' meaning freedom with the prefix 'prat' which reverses its meaning when joined to it (cf. pratisrota, pratigĀmi, pratikula, etc.). PrĀtimok.sa, an adjective, meaning 'opposed to freedom,' 'bound down,' when changed to a noun becomes PrĀtimok.sa which in PĀli takes the form 'pĀ.timokkha' meaning that which is 'binding upon' and it is exactly in this sense that the code 'PĀ.timokkha' is used.(39)

The PrĀtimok.sa contains the Bhik.su PrĀtimok.sa and the Bhik.su.nii PrĀtimok.sa because it concerns both bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis. The Dharmaguptaka vinaya, the Ssu fen lu, also contains the monastic rules for bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis in the sections known as the Bhik.su Ssu fen lu and the Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu. The Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu has seven categories of rules, while the Bhik.su Ssu fen lu contains eight categories, adding the aniyata dharmas(undetermined rules).(40) In order to make a complete comparative analysis of the rules in each category in the PrĀtimok.sa, I will cover each category of the rules chapter by chapter in turn: pĀrĀjika dharmas(defeat), sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas(formal meeting), aniyata dharmas(undetermined), ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas(forfeiture), pĀyantika dharmas(expiation), pratide"saniiya dharmas(confession), "saik.sa dharmas(training), and adhikara.na-"samatha dharmas (legal questions).(41) Finally, I will explore the interpolation of the Eight Rules which are mandated for bhik.su.niis only, by comparing the Eight Rules and the Bhik.su.nii pĀyantika Rules.

PART I

PĀrĀjika Dharma(Defeat)

The categories of rules in the Ssu fen lu and the PĀli vinaya are arranged in order of the severity of the offenses. The most serious offenses against monastic life are the pĀrĀjika dharmas(PĀli: pĀrĀjika) for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. I. B. Horner explains the term pĀrĀjika as follows:

Burnouf's idea (adopted by Childers and others) is that pĀrĀjika is derived from para + aj, meaning a crime which involves the expulsion or exclusion of the guilty party. Para + aj may be a better source, grammatically speaking, for pĀrĀjika then is para-ji. Yet, that the sense intended is "defeat," seems to me rather less doubtful than that it is expulsion, and aj, though a Vedic root, meaning "to drive away," is unknown as a root in PĀli.(42)

E. J. Thomas says that "Buddhaghosa interprets pĀrĀjika as suffering defeat, and the MuulasarvĀstivĀdins appear to do the same, but the earliest commentary in the vinaya gives no suggestion of this meaning."(43)

In explaining the term pĀrĀjika dharmas(Chinese: po luo yi fa) the Ssu fen lu says that if a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii] commits a pĀrĀjika offense, he [she] is compared with "a person whose head is cut off." The offender totally loses his [her] monastic status and is no longer in association with the pure bhik.su.niis or bhik.sus.(44) In this category, we see that bhik.su.niis have four additional rules concerning sexual behaviors. If a bhik.su is involved in a sexual offense in this category, the bhik.su is required to leave the Bhik.su sa"ngha. In the same way, if a bhik.su.nii has committed a sexual offense in this category, she is also required to leave the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. However, the result of the bhik.su.nii's sexual offense may lead to pregnancy because bhik.su.niis are potentially fertile. For this reason, the four additional rules in this category are restricted rules to bhik.su.niis. The pĀrĀjika dharmas are as follows.

TABLE NO. 1

PĀrĀjika dharmas (Defeat)

(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)

Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis	Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(45)	Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(46)
1	1	Not to have sexual intercourse
2	2	Not to steal
3	3	Not to kill a human or one who has human form of life
4	4	Not to falsely claim to have attained superhuman perfection
5		Not to touch and rub a man who is filled with sexual desire(47)
6		Not to involve in the special eight actions(48) with a man who is filled with desire
7		Not to condone or conceal another bhik.su.nii's pĀrĀjika offense
8		Not to follow a bhik.su who is suspended by the sa"ngha in spite of being admonished a third time(49)

As table number one shows, bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus share the first four pĀrĀjika dharmas. There are four additional rules (#5, 6, 7, 8) for bhik.su.niis. Violation of any one of the pĀrĀjika dharmas has no possibility of rehabilitation and entails permanent expulsion from the sa"ngha.(50) Two rules (#5, 6) of the additional rules for bhik.su.niis deal with sexual offenses, number seven with concealing another bhik.su.nii's pĀrĀjika offense, and number eight with a bhik.su who is suspended by the sa"ngha. Without having sufficient knowledge of the Buddhist view of women, some may think that the four more rules were added because of women's unrestrained sexual desires. For example, a Korean (male) Buddhist scholar, Jung-shup Han, comments on the Bhik.su.nii PĀrĀjika additional rules:

We should understand the reasons why Gautama Buddha refused to found the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha and laid down four additional rules for bhik.su.niis than for bhik.sus in this category. Because bhik.su.niis' sexual desires were lustful and uncontrollable, they had sexual relations with Buddhist lay people, non-Buddhists or even bhik.sus. Thus they created serious problems in the Buddhist community and caused the fall of the pure dharma during the time of the Buddha.(51)

However, Richard F. Gombrich points out:

. . . [I]t is noteworthy that the Buddha did not hold the view, so widespread in traditional India and elsewhere, that sexual desire is the women's fault and sexual intercourse the result of female temptation of the male . . . . More substantial is his sermon which describes sexual desire of men for women and of women for men in identical terms.(52)

Gross also mentions:

Interestingly, though many modern commentators feel that one of the major concerns of the monastic rules was to separate the monks and the nuns to protect celibacy, neither monks or nuns are tempted by each other, with very few exceptions. The real struggle is between monastics and lay people.(53)

Nagata Mizu additionally claims a practical reason for the two additional rules (#5, 6) concerning sexual prohibition for bhik.su.niis. He notes that these rules prohibit bhik.su.niis from physical contact with men at any time and in any situation because of the bhik.su.niis' potential fertility, childbearing being contrary to monastic life.(54)

The Ssu fen lu does not elaborate on how the seventh pĀrĀjika dharma for bhik.su.niis came to be formulated.(55) However, the PĀli vinaya gives an historical account of how the rule was formed. The bhik.su.nii SundariinandĀ was involved in sexual relations with the layman SĀ.lha, MigĀra's grandson, and became pregnant. She was forced to leave the sa"ngha after she could no longer conceal her condition. Her sister, ThullanandĀ, concealed SundariinandĀ's offense even though she knew that SundariinandĀ had committed a pĀrĀjika offense. So even though rule number seven of the pĀrĀjika dharmas at first glance seems to deal with the concealment of an offense, it also indicates a concern with sexual matters between men and women.(56)

Although Gautama Buddha laid down the rules that bhik.su.niis should learn the dharma from bhik.sus who were authorized by the Bhik.su sa"ngha,(57) he also established rule number eight to protect bhik.su.niis from abuse by a man who was no longer a bhik.su. This rule may be a relic of the early period of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha when some bhik.su.niis were used by a bhik.su who had been expelled by the sa"ngha.(58) The additional rules for bhik.su.niis in the pĀrĀjika dharmas look varied, but the case histories establish them as generally concerning sexual offenses. Rule number eight is one of the most important rules of the monastic life for bhik.su.niis; however, violation of the rule is not an offense until the third admonition. Chatsuman Kabilsingh comments on rule number eight:

It is interesting to note that the structure of pĀrĀjika 8 stands out from the rest. A bhik.su.nii is defeated only after the third admonition, the form resembles that of sa.mghĀva"se.sa more than pĀrĀjika. Could it be possible that it has been shifted from sa.mghĀva"se.sa? If that was the case, then it must have occurred at a very early period before the separation of the various sects, for all of them share this rule.(59)

Nagata Mizu contends that if a bhik.su.nii is involved in sexual relations, she is required to leave the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. Additionally, the result of the offense can cause her pregnancy, and this can result in a serious external problem for the Buddhist community as well as the individual. In contrast, if a bhik.su is involved in sexual relations, the punishment of the offense could be inwardly limited only to the bhik.su.(60)

From a close examination of the comparative study of the pĀrĀjika dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, we see that the four additional pĀrĀjika dharmas for bhik.su.niis actually deal with sexual matters. It seems that Gautama Buddha put great emphasis on providing stronger guards for the life of chastity for bhik.su.niis than for bhik.sus, and strong guards against sexual behavior for bhik.su.niis because of their potential fertility. As Nagata Mizu asserts, the results of sexual offenses of bhik.su.niis can be greatly different from those of bhik.sus. The result of the sexual offense of a bhik.su.nii is not simply settled by only leaving the sa"ngha herself, because of her motherhood and childbearing.

PART II

Sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas (Formal Meeting)

The second most serious group of monastic rules in the PrĀtimok.sa are the sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas(PĀli: sa"nghadisesa). The meaning of the term sa.mghĀva"se.sa is also controversial among scholars. Kabilsingh explains that "[i]n some of the Sanskrit texts the word occurs in the form sa.mghĀva"se.sa, sa"nghadise.sa would thus be an old Maghadhi form of sa"nghavasesa, a later Sanskrit rendering of the original sa"ghadisesa."(61) Horner notes:

Like the meaning of pĀrĀjika, the meaning of sa"nghadisesa [Skt. sa.mghĀva"se.sa] is controversial. Again B. C. Law and I follow vinaya Texts in rendering sa"nghadisesa as offenses (or rules or matters) which require a formal meeting of the Order [sa"ngha].(62)

Sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas translates into the Chinese as seng ts'an fa, which means "remaining in the sa"ngha."(63) The Chinese Shih sung lu explains the term sa.mghĀva"se.sa as the offenses despite which one could still remain in the sa"ngha. When a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii] confesses to the sa"ngha his [or her] offense, he [or she] can be expiated from the wrongdoing.(64) In this category, we see that bhik.su.niis have four more rules than bhik.sus. Even though there are four additional rules for bhik.su.niis in this category, the punishment for violation of them shows a compassionate way for bhik.su.niis because it requires three admonitions. As a result, the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis provide more opportunities for bhik.su.niis for self-training in their alms life. Sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas are as follows.

TABLE NO. 2

Sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas (Formal Meeting)

(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)

Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis	Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(65)	Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(66)
1	5	Not to undertake an act of a go-between for a man and a woman
2	8	Not to accuse an innocent bhik.su.nii of a groundless pĀrĀjika offense
3	9	Not to accuse an innocent bhik.su.nii of a groundless pĀrĀjika offense out of anger or hostility toward her
4		Not to sue as an accuser for damages
5		Not to ordain a thief
6		Not to restore a suspended bhik.su.nii to the sa"ngha
7		Not to go to villages alone, cross to the other side of a river alone, go away for a night alone, or stay behind a group of bhik.su.niis alone
8		Not to accept food or clothes from a man who is filled with desire
9		Not to persuade other bhik.su.niis to accept food from a man who is filled with desire
10	10	Not to cause a schism in a harmonious sa"ngha in spite of being admonished a third time
11	11	Not to support a schismatic bhik.su.nii in spite of being admonished a third time
12	12	Not to ignore a third admonition to leave a village after bringing corruption to a family or village
13	13	Not to break the regulations of the sa"ngha or ignore a third admonition due to malice
14		Not to get along with a bhik.su.nii who has committed offenses and conceal each other's offense in spite of being admonished a third time
15		Not to encourage other bhik.su.niis to get along with a bhik.su.nii who has committed an offense and conceal one another's offenses in spite of being admonished a third time
16		Not to say that you will repudiate the Buddha, Dharma and the sa"ngha out of anger or displeasure in spite of being admonished a third time
17		not to fight with a bhik.su.nii and bear malice to the bhik.su.nii in spite of being admonished a third time

TABLE NO. 3

Sa.mghĀva"se.sa Dharmas for bhik.sus

(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)

Order of Rules for Bhik.sus	Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(67)
1	Not to intentionally emit semen
2	Not to engage with a woman in bodily contact or take her hand, take her arm, touch her hair, touch one or another of her limbs
3	Not to speak to a woman with wicked words concerned with unlawful sexual intercourse
4	Not to speak in front of women, in praise of sexual service of the body with regard to himself
6	Not to build a dwelling place in excessive measurements(68) without a donor
7	Not to build a large residence with a donor on a site entailing harm (to creatures) or with surroundings which are not conducive to roaming

The seventeen rules for bhik.su.niis and thirteen rules for bhik.sus in this category represent the second severe breach of the monastic discipline. Seven rules (#1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13 for bhik.su.niis, #5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 for bhik.sus) are common to bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. Of the ten sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas which are different for bhik.su.niis and for bhik.sus, rule number four for bhik.su.niis deals with behavior with lay people; rule five with false ordination; rule six with restoring a suspended bhik.su.nii without permission from the sa"ngha; rule seven is about those who go alone into the village or cross the bank of the river, and spend a night alone; rules eight and nine are related to safeguarding bhik.su.niis from the dangers of lustful men; rules fourteen and fifteen forbid bhik.su.niis from concealing the offenses of others; rule sixteen concerns the bhik.su.nii who shows disrespect to the Buddha, Dharma and the sa"ngha; and rule seventeen deals with a quarrelsome bhik.su.nii.

Just as bhik.su.niis have rules which apply only to them in this category, bhik.sus likewise have rules specific to their situations (Table No. 3). The six different rules for bhik.sus in this category cover such matters: four rules (#1, 2, 3, 4) are related to sex; and two (#6, 7) are concerned with the construction of a hut or a large dwelling place. These rules, which are only for bhik.sus, also provide glimpses into the lives of bhik.su.niis. For example, with regard to the two rules about building dwelling place, Kabilsingh claims that, because these rules "are not shared by the bhik.su.niis, it might be understood that usually the nuns are not themselves in charge of construction."(69)

The first nine of the sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus become offenses at once when a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su transgresses any of these rules, whereas the final seven (#10-17) for bhik.su.niis and final four (#10-13) for bhik.sus do not become offenses until a third admonition of bhik.su.niis or bhik.sus is necessary. The offenses of the four additional rules (#14, 15, 16, 17) for bhik.su.niis in this category require three admonitions of the bhik.su.nii involved.(70)

When a bhik.su commits any one of the sa.mghĀva"se.sa offenses, he is subjected to a period of parivĀsa(71) [PĀli: parivĀsa] for as many days as the offense is concealed. If a bhik.su informs another bhik.su at once about his offense of the sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharma, he is required to undergo only a period of the six nights of the mĀnatva(72) [PĀli: mĀnatta] in the Bhik.su sa"ngha. However, if a bhik.su conceals his offense, first he must go through a period of the parivĀsa for as many days as it is concealed, and then a further period called mĀnatva must also be spent in the Bhik.su sa"ngha.(73)

In contrast, when a bhik.su.nii has violated one of the sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas, she is required to undergo only the period of mĀnatva for a half month in both Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Sa"nghas, no matter whether she has concealed her offense for some period or not.(74) bhik.su.niis are not required to do the parivĀsa. However, bhik.su.niis are subjected to a period of the mĀnatva in both sa"nghas for half a month. She has to approach both Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Sa"nghas, and beg for the period of the mĀnatva.(75) The PĀli Bhik.su.nii vinaya states that:

A nun having fallen into one or other of these shall spend a fortnight in mĀnatta [Skt. mĀnatva] discipline before both Orders. If, when the nun has performed the mĀnatta discipline, the Order of nuns should number twenty, then that nun may be rehabilitated. But if the Order of nuns, numbering less than twenty even by one, should rehabilitate that nun, that nun is not rehabilitated, and those nuns are blameworthy; this is the proper course there.(76)

On the other hand, the Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu requires a larger sa"ngha members stating that:

If a bhik.su.nii violates any one of the sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas, she must perform a period of the mĀnatva for one half month in both sa"nghas. When the bhik.su.nii has performed the mĀnatva discipline, she must ask for expiation of her offense in the presence of both sa"nghas of the twenty bhik.sus and twenty bhik.su.niis. If there is less than forty even by one, she cannot be rehabilitated, and those bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis (in both sa"nghas) are blameworthy (for not having a required number to rehabilitate her).(77)

In comparing the two versions above, we note that they disagree in the required numbers for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. The PĀli vinaya requires only twenty bhik.su.niis as a sufficient number for rehabilitation, but it does not specifically give the number required for bhik.sus. However, the Chinese Ssu fen lu requires twenty bhik.sus and twenty bhik.su.niis in each sa"ngha as a sufficient number for the rehabilitation.(78) Perhaps during the long history of translation of the vinaya, the additional sufficient numbers may have been added to the Chinese Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu.

Taking a look at "performing the mĀnatva discipline before both sa"nghas for bhik.su.niis," it might be thought that the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha subordinated its position to the Bhik.su sa"ngha and that bhik.su.niis are subjected to a heavier penalty than bhik.sus for an offense of the sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas. However, Ian Astley argues:

Actually, although many parts of the vinaya reflect a very petty-minded way of thinking which may be regarded as holding almost anything from monkeys to women in an unfavorable light, the basic considerations behind this difference in the relative status of the two orders should not be misconstrued. In those days (and this still applies to much of present Indian society) a woman who had left the life of the household would otherwise have been regarded more or less as a harlot and subjected to the appropriate harassment. By being formally associated with the monks, the nuns were able to enjoy the benefits of leaving the household life without incurring immediate harm. Whilst it is one thing to abhor - as any civilized person must do - the attitudes and behavior towards women which underlie the necessity for such protection, it is surely misplaced to criticize the Buddha and his community for adopting this particular policy.(79)

I fully agree with Astley that the formal acts required for bhik.su.niis before both sa"nghas, and some of the additional rules, were generated because of the specific social and cultural context during the time of Gautama Buddha. In the vinaya there are several examples of Brahmins who spoke of bhik.su.niis as "harlots or whores." These stories provide a glimpse of bhik.su.niis in the midst of the Brahmin social milieu during the time of Gautama Buddha. For example:

Now at that time several nuns, going to SĀvatthii through the Kosalan districts, having arrived at a certain village in the evening, having approached a certain Brahmin family, asked for accommodation. Then that Brahmin woman spoke thus to these nuns: "Wait, ladies, until the Brahmin comes." . . .
Then that Brahmin having come during the night, spoke thus to that Brahmin women: "Who are these?"
"They are nuns, master."
Saying: "Throw out these shaven-headed strumpets," he threw them out from the house.(80)

. . . . Then that man, defeated, looked down upon, criticized, spread it about, saying:
"These shaven-headed (women) are not (true) recluses, they are strumpets. How can they have the store-room taken away from us?"(81)

. . . . Then that Brahmin . . . spread it about, saying:
"These shaven-headed strumpets are not true recluses. How can they let a pot fall on my head? I will set fire to their dwelling," and having taken up a fire-brand, he entered the dwelling.(82)

Within these social conditions, Gautama Buddha opened up new horizons for women by founding the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. This social and spiritual advancement for women was ahead of the times and, therefore, drew many objections from men, including bhik.sus. He was probably well aware of the controversy that would be caused by the harassment of his female disciples. In Buddhist history, the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha was founded five years later than the Bhik.su sa"ngha.(83) In the early stage of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha, bhik.su.niis learned all forms of disciplinary acts and various aspects of knowledge from bhik.sus. The PĀli Cullavagga (The Less or Lesser Division of the vinaya)(84) shows how the Bhik.su sa"ngha was modeled on the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha.

Now at that time the PĀ.timokkha was not recited to nuns. They told this matter to the Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to recite the PĀ.timokkha to the nuns." . . .(85)

The nuns did not know to recite the PĀ.timokkha. They told this matter to the Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'The PĀ.timokkha should be recited thus.' "(86)

The nuns did not know how to confess offenses. They told this matter to the Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'An offense should be confessed thus.' "(87)

The nuns did not know how to acknowledge offenses. They told this matter to the Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'An offense should be acknowledged thus.' "(88)

Nuns did not know (formal) acts should be carried out. They told this matter to the Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'A (formal) act should be carried out thus.' "(89)

As I have discussed, the performance of the formal acts for bhik.su.niis before both sa"nghas provided a close tie between the two sa"nghas. By legitimately associating with the Bhik.su sa"ngha, the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha had benefits and protection from outside harm in ancient India. When we especially consider the cultural context of ancient India, the formal acts before both sa"nghas might have been necessary for the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. As I have already mentioned, the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis (#14, 15, 16, 17) in this category belong to the last eight rules which require three admonitions before punishment. This requirement of three admonitions for the offenses of the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis, I believe, provides more opportunities for bhik.su.niis to develop their religious lives without overly strict punishment. These also encourage bhik.su.niis to expand their self-cultivation with the three admonitions, adding a compassionately accommodating limit to behavior.

PART III

Aniyata dharmas (Undetermined)

The third category of the rules for bhik.sus is the aniyata dharmas(PĀli: aniyatĀ) which do not exist in the Bhik.su.nii PrĀtimok.sa. Aniyata has been defined as "[s]ince the nature of the offense is uncertain, this section of the PĀ.timokkha is called aniyata dharma, that is, 'to be decided.' "(90) Charles S. Prebish says that "[t]his category of offenses is referred to as "undetermined offenses."(91) Aniyata dharmas translates into Chinese as pu ting fa,(92) which means indefinite or undetermined. In this category, the two rules for bhik.sus show an astonishing degree of trust in women to testify against a bhik.su who has committed one of the aniyata dharmas. Aniyata dharmas are as follows.

TABLE NO. 4

Aniyata Dharmas for only bhik.sus (Undetermined)

Order of Rules for Bhik.sus	Summary of Rules(93)
1	Not to sit down with a woman in a secret place, a concealed seat suitable for having sexual relations with her
2	Not to sit down with a woman in an open place or on a concealed seat unsuitable for having sexual relations

My discussion of these two rules for bhik.sus may seem irrelevant. However, they contain a Buddhist view of women. As Prebish points out, "[t]he two [aniyata] offenses in this category reflect an outstanding and somewhat surprising degree of trust in the female lay follower."(94) If a bhik.su has taken a seat together with a woman in a secret place which is convenient for sexual relations or in an open place unsuitable for lustful desires, he may be charged with one of the offenses of the pĀrĀjika, sa.mghĀva"se.sa or pĀyantika dharmas. The punishment may vary from the pĀrĀjika to the pĀyantika according to the eyewitness testimony of a female lay follower, based on her personal word.(95) It is noteworthy that the word of a woman was held in such high regard, and certainly unusual given the general low status of women at the time the rules were formulated. In the penalties for the offenses of the aniyata dharmas for bhik.sus, these two rules put a considerable trust in women, even though the aniyata dharmas are not applicable to bhik.su.niis. Horner notes:

These two Aniyata rules indicate the respect and deference that was, at that time, paid to women. They were not scornfully brushed aside as idle gossips and frivolous chatter-boxes, but their words were taken seriously.(96)

PART IV

Ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas (Forfeiture)

The ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas(PĀli: nissaggiya pĀcittiya) are particularly concerned with conduct concerning material possessions. They follow the sa.mghĀva"se.sa dharmas in the Bhik.su.nii PrĀtimok.sa, while they follow the aniyata dharmas as the fourth category in the Bhik.su PrĀtimok.sa.

From internal evidence, pĀcittiya [Skt. pĀyantika ] is a (minor) offense to be confessed, Āpatti desetabbĀ[Skt. Āpatti desayitavya], a statement common to all the Nissaggiyas. But etymologically the word pĀcittiya has nothing to do with confession. I have therefore kept to the more literal translation, and have rendered it "offense of expiation" throughout, and the two words nissaggiya pĀcittiya as "offense of expiation involving forfeiture."(97)

The term ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas translates into the Chinese as she to fa.(98) In the Chinese she means to abandon, while the Chinese to means to fall. The Sanskrit term pĀyantika in the Chinese refers to roasting, boiling and falling. If a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii] commits an offense of the ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas, it is believed that he [or she] will fall into hell and suffer by being boiled and roasted.(99) Even though there are the same numbers of the rules both for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus in this category, some rules for bhik.sus do not allow them to demand from bhik.su.niis feminine tasks which would interfere with the bhik.su.niis' own religious pursuits. The ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas are as follows.

TABLE NO. 5

Ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas (Forfeiture)

(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)

Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis	Order of Same or Similar Rules for Bhik.sus(100)	Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(101)
1	1	Not to lay aside an extra robe more than ten days
2	2	Not to spend over a night without the five robes(102)
3	3	Not to lay aside robe material for more than one month
4	6	Not to ask for a robe from an unrelated householder except at the right time(103)
5	7	Not to accept extra robes when the robes have been lost, stolen, burned or washed away
6	8	Not to ask for a better robe from a householder out of desire for a fine robe
7	9	Not to ask for one fine robe instead of two robes offered by two householders
8	10	Not to request from a steward more than six times in order to obtain a robe
9	18	Not to accept or cause to be picked up gold and silver for bhik.su.niis own use
10	19	Not to engage in buying and selling
11	20	Not to engage in activities in various kinds of buying and selling
12	22	Not to get a new bowl when an old bowl has been repaired in less than five places
13	23	Not to beg yarn to make a robe woven by an unrelated weaver
14	24	Not to ask a weaver to make a well-woven robe
15	25	Not to take back or cause to snatch away a robe given to another out of anger, malice, or ill-temper
16	26	Not to lay aside medicine for more than seven days
17	28	Not to accept a special robe ten days before the ka.thina(104) full moon
18	30	Not to appropriate to yourself benefits belonging to the sa"ngha
19		Not to ask for this, and then ask for that
20		Not to spend the observance hall fund on another fund
21		Not to spend the food fund on the robe fund
22		Not to spend the bed fund on the robe fund
23		Not to spend the housing fund of the sa"ngha on the robe fund
24	21	Not to store extra bowls
25		Not to store fine appliances
26		Not to break a promise to lend periodical cloth to another bhik.su.nii
27		Not to accept robe material at the wrong time for making of the robe at the right time
28		Not to take back a robe already exchanged for another, out of anger
29		Not to ask for an expensive heavy robe(105)
30		Not to ask for an expensive light and thin robe

The ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas contain thirty rules for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. However, the contents of some rules differ. Nineteen rules for bhik.su.niis have been taken from the rules for bhik.sus, while the remaining eleven rules for bhik.su.niis are different from those for bhik.sus. The ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus cover such topics as robes, bowls, medicine, money, funds, etc. Violation of any of the ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas requires a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su to abandon those robes or bowls, etc., and then to formally confess the offense in the presence of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha or the Bhik.su sa"ngha, providing that the sa"ngha not be less than five members.(106) Therefore, the transgression of the ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas does not require any punishment, per se, only confession.(107)

The ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis are comprised of seventeen rules (#1-8, 13-15, 17, 26-30) dealing with robes; three (#9, 10, 11) with gold and silver, and buying and selling; three (#12, 24, 25) with bowls; one (#16) with medicine; two (#18, 19) with appropriating sa"ngha property and asking for food; and four (#20, 21, 22, 23) with misuse of funds. In contrast, the ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas for bhik.sus which are different from those for bhik.su.niis number eleven, as follows.

TABLE NO. 6

Ni.hsargika-pĀyantika Dharmas for bhik.sus

(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)

Order of Rules for Bhik.sus	Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(108)
4	Not to accept a robe from an unrelated bhik.su.nii unless it is in exchange
5	Not to call upon an unrelated bhik.su.nii for an old robe to be washed, dyed, or beaten
11	Not to have a new rug made of silk
12	Not to have a new rug made of pure black sheep's wool
13	Not to have a new rug made of pure white sheep's wool
14	Not to have another new rug within six years
15	Not to make a new sitting rug without using pieces from the old sitting rug to disfigure the new rug on all sides
16	Not to carry sheep's wool on the road more than three yojanas(109)
17	Not to call upon an unrelated bhik.su.nii for sheep's wool to be washed, dyed, or combed
27	Not to get a rain-cloth robe earlier than a month (from the hot season), or wear it earlier than half a month (from the hot season)
29	Bhik.sus may stay away one or another robe of the three robes for six nights at the most in fearful, dangerous, or doubtful situations

Six of the rules for bhik.sus above (#11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16) deal with the use and making of various types of rugs; two of the rules (#27, 29) deal with robes. Three rules (#4, 5, 17) actually prevent bhik.sus from taking advantage of bhik.su.niis. This is clearly shown in rule number seventeen for bhik.sus, which is illustrated in the following story given in the Bhik.su-vibha.ngha:

At that time the group of six monks had sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by nuns. The nuns, through washing, dyeing, combing the sheep's wool, neglected the exposition, the interrogation, the higher morality, the higher thought, the higher insight. . . .
"Gotamii, I hope that the nuns are zealous, ardent,(with) a self that is striving?"
"Where, lord, is there zeal in the nuns? The masters, the group of six monks, have sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by nuns. The nuns . . . neglect the exposition, the interrogation, the higher morality, the higher thought, the higher insight." . . .
"Foolish men, those who are not relations do not know what is suitable or what is unsuitable, or what is pleasant or what is unpleasant to those who are not relations. Thus you, foolish men, will have sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by nuns who are not relations? It is not, foolish men, for pleasing those who are not (yet) pleased. . . . And thus, monks, this rule of training should be set forth."(110)

Horner also points out:

Besides the giving of robes, the washing of robes also became subject to various regulations. It was said that robes were not to be washed (by the almswomen [bhik.su.niis] for the almsmen [bhik.sus]) unless they were related; old garments were not to be washed, dyed or beaten by the almswomen for the almsmen, unless they were related.(111)

In comparing the ni.hsargika-pĀyantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, we see that some rules for bhik.sus forbid them from taking advantage of bhik.su.niis. Thus freed from abuse, bhik.su.niis can put more attention into their spiritual practice. Gross notes:

Furthermore, the monastic code protected nuns from demanding monks who might ask nuns to do housework for the monks or to give them food and clothing - feminine tasks in the renounced world. Such rulings are remarkably considerate and recognize that women renounce the world for their own religious pursuits, which should not be undermined by the demands of men used to female service.(112)

PART V

PĀyantika dharmas (Expiation)

The pĀyantika or patayantika dharmas translates into the Chinese tan t'i fa,(113) or tan to fa.(114) They are even less severe than the previous categories for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, and cover a wide a range of topics. There are one hundred seventy-eight rules for bhik.su.niis and ninety rules for bhik.sus in this particular category. Horner explains:

A curious feature of the PĀcittiyas is that the Old Commentary on the rules nowhere explains what is meant by pĀcittiya, the offense which gives its name to this whole section. It is from the phrase Āpatti desetabbĀ, occurring in the Vibha"nga on each Nissaggiya, that we infer that pĀcittiya is an offense to be confessed; and even as forfeiture and confession are to be made to an Order or to a group or to an individual, so we may conclude that the same holds good when the offense is one whose penalty is merely that of expiation, of confession unaccompanied by forfeiture.(115)

While pĀyantika [PĀli: pĀcittiya] is a transgression which causes the breaking down of ku"sala-karma (good acts), nevertheless, it is an Āpatti (offense), which one merely needs to be mindful of.(116) This category includes a great difference in the number of rules for bhik.su.niis from those for bhik.sus. The purpose of these rules, which is mainly based on the historical realities of the daily life of bhik.su.niis, is to encourage bhik.su.niis to be mindful of speech, behavior, and the regulations of the sa"ngha, etc. Wijayaratna points out "[t]he pĀcittiyas [Skt. pĀyantikas] deal with offenses requiring only confession."(117) When a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su violates one of the pĀyantika dharmas, the offender is required to confess to another bhik.su.nii or bhik.su, or a group or the sa"ngha.(118) pĀyantika dharmas are as follows.

TABLE NO. 7

PĀyantika dharmas (Expiation)

(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)

Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis	Order of Same Or Similar Rules for Bhik.sus(119)	Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(120)
1	1	Not to speak a conscious lie
2	2	Not to use insulting speech
3	3	Not to alienate members of the sa"ngha
4	4	Not to stay with a man in a room for a night
5	5	Not to stay with a woman in a room for more than two or three nights
6	6	Not to recite the suutras with one who is not ordained(121)
7	7	Not to speak of a grave offense of a bhik.su.nii to an unordained person
8	8	Not to lie about her superhuman faculties to an unordained person in begging for alms food
9	9	Not to teach more than five or six sentences of Dharma to a man unless there is a wise woman also present
10	10	Not to dig the ground
11	11	Not to cut down trees
12	12	Not to vex or abuse the sa"ngha
13	13	Not to slander or rebuke a bhik.su.nii who is assigned to a particular job in the sa"ngha
14	14	Not to spread out a cushion, a couch, a chair or a pillow in an open place belonging to the sa"ngha
15	15	Not to spread out a cushion, a couch, a chair or a pillow in a private place belonging to the sa"ngha
16	16	Not to lie down in a sleeping place or dwelling place belonging to a bhik.su.nii
17	17	Not to throw out or cause a bhik.su.nii to be thrown out of a dwelling place in the sa"ngha
18	18	Not to sit down or lie down on a couch or a chair with weak legs
19	19	Not to use water that might have living things in it
20	20	Not to cover the roof of a large dwelling place with more than two or three layers
21	31	Not to eat alms food at a public rest house more than once, except in case of illness
22	33	Not to eat a group meal, except at a right time(122)
23	34	Not to accept more than three bowls of alms food
24	37	Not to eat a meal at the wrong time(123)
25	38	Not to eat a meal that has been laid aside
26	39	Not to put food that is not given into the mouth, except for water or a tooth pick
27	42	Not to break a promise of food to one who is asking for alms food
28	43	Not to sit down in a lay person's house with a wife and husband after alms food
29	44	Not to sit down in a private place with a couple
30	45	Not to sit down in a private place with a man
31	46	Not to break a promise to share alms (food) with a bhik.su.nii who accompanies one an alms tour
32	47	Not to accept medicines for longer than four months
33	48	Not to go to see an army fighting unless there is sufficient reason for it
34	49	Not to stay with the army for more than three nights
35	50	Not to stay amongst an army to enjoy the battle
36	51	Not to drink alcohol
37	52	Not to play in the water
38	53	Not to make a bhik.su.nii laugh by tickling with the fingers
39	54	Not to ignore another bhik.su.nii's admonition
40	55	Not to frighten or cause a bhik.su.nii to be frightened
41	56	Not to bathe more than half monthly, except at a right time(124)
42	57	Not to make a fire in an open place
43	58	Not to hide or cause to be hidden a bowl or a robe belonging to a bhik.su.nii, even for fun
44	59	Not to take back a robe given to a bhik.su.nii without asking her for permission
45	60	Not to wear a new robe with its original color unless the new robe is discolored with a mixture of the three colors: blue, black and dark purple(125)
46	61	Not to intentionally deprive any living thing of life
47	62	Not to intentionally drink water which contains living things
48	63	Not to intentionally give a cause for remorse to a bhik.su.nii, even for a moment
49	65	Not to intentionally conceal a grave offense committed habitually by a bhik.su.nii
50	66	Not to cause quarreling, bickering, or fighting
51	67	Not to intentionally go with a thief along the same road
52	68	Not to ignore the admonition of a bhik.su.nii because of her own wrong view
53	69	Not to eat, talk, or lie down with a bhik.su.nii who is suspended by the sa"ngha
54	70	Not to protect a "siik.samĀ.na(126) (probationer) who is suspended by the sa"ngha
55	71	Not to ignore an experienced bhik.su.nii's advice about learning the rules for training
56	72	Not to disparage the rules for training
57	73	Listen carefully to the recitation of the PrĀtimok.sa
58	74	Not to engage in criticism after consenting to a legitimate act
59	75	Not to leave the seat without asking a competent bhik.su.nii for permission when the sa"ngha is engaged in pious philosophical discussion
60	76	Not to criticize another's decision after granting someone the power to make a decision
61	77	Not to overhear while bhik.su.niis are quarreling, disputing, or engaging in contention
62	78	Not to hit a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure
63	79	Not to raise a hand at a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure
64	80	Not to accuse a bhik.su.nii of a groundless sa.mghĀva"se.sa offense
65	81	Not to cross the threshold, or vicinity of the threshold, of the palace in the early morning without permission of a competent bhik.su.nii
66	82	Not to pick up a jewel with the bhik.su.nii's own hands, or even ask others to do it
67	83	Not to enter a village at the wrong time without asking a competent bhik.su.nii for permission, except for sufficient reasons
68	84	Not to make the legs of a chair larger than the eight finger breadth
69	85	Not to sit down or lie down on a chair or couch covered with cotton
70		Not to eat garlic
71		Not to cut the hair of the private parts of the body
72		Not to put a finger into the vagina more than the length of two finger joints when you take a douche
73		Not to make a male sexual organ out of any material
74		Not to slap each other on the private parts
75		Not to wait on a bhik.su with drinking water or a fan while he is eating a meal
76		Not to ask lay people for grains
77		Not to throw out excrement or urine on the living grass
78		Not to throw out excrement or urine over a wall or a fence
79		Not to go to see dancing, singing, or playing music
80		Not to stand or talk with a man in a secluded place
81		Not to enter into a secluded place with a man
82		Not to whisper into a man's ear in a secluded place
83		Not to leave a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission
84		Not to sit down in a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission
85		Not to lie down on a seat in a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission
86		Not to enter into a dark room with a man
87		Not to deliver the teacher's message misleadingly
88		Not to curse herself or others
89		Not to beat the chest while weeping after quarreling
90		Not to share a bed with anybody, except in case of illness
91		Not to share a blanket
92		Not to intentionally cause discomfort to a bhik.su.nii by asking a tricky question
93		Not to neglect a sick bhik.su.nii who has been living together
94		Not to drive out a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure
95		Not to walk on alms tour during the rainy season retreat(127)
96		Not to stay at the place of retreat after having the rainy season retreat
97		Not to walk on borderlines which are dangerous and frightening
98		Not to walk in dangerous and frightening regions even within the borderline
99		Not to take company in lay people or their sons
100		Not to go to see a king's pleasure house, an art gallery, a park, or a lotus pond
101		Not to bathe naked at the river or lake
102	similar to 89	Not to make bathing clothes that are not of a proper measure(128)
103		Not to break a promise to sew a bhik.su.nii's robe, or at least make an effort to do it
104		Not to let five days pass without looking after the outer robe
105		Not to individually appropriate benefits which belong to the sa"ngha
106		Not to put on a bhik.su.nii's robe without asking her for permission
107		Not to give the bhik.su.nii's robes to a lay person, a wanderer, or a female wanderer
108		Not to hold back the sa"ngha from making a division of robe materials when it is legally allowed to do so
109		Not to hold back a legally valid removal of the ka.thina from the sa"ngha
110		Not to hold back a legally valid removal of the ka.thina from a bhik.su.nii
111		Promote peace between two fighting bhik.su.niis
112		Not to give food to a lay person or a wanderer with bhik.su.niis own hands
113		Not to work for lay people like a house wife
114		Not to spin yarn
115		Not to sit down or lie down on lay people's seats
116		Not to leave a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission after staying over a night
117		Not to learn and recite an incantation to householders
118		Not to teach an incantation to householders
119		Not to ordain a pregnant woman
120		Not to ordain a woman who has left her baby at home
121	65	Not to ordain a woman who is not twenty years old
122		Not to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na who has not trained for two years even if she is twenty years old
123		Not to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na who has not trained for two years in the six rules(129) even if she is twenty years old
124		Not to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na who has trained for two years in the six rules, but who is not agreed upon by the sa"ngha
125		Not to ordain a married woman who is less than twelve years old
126		Not to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na married for full twelve years and who has trained for two years in the six rules, but who is not agreed upon by the sa"ngha
127		Not to ordain a lewd woman
128		Be responsible for the disciples for two years as a preceptor while they are training
129		Learn from the preceptor for two years as an ordained bhik.su.nii
130		Not to become a preceptor without authorization by the sa"ngha
131		Not to become a preceptor if she has not been a bhik.su.nii for twelve years
132		Not to become a preceptor, even if she has been a bhik.su.nii for twelve years, if she is not approved by the sa"ngha
133		Not to complain when she is not approved by the sa"ngha to become a preceptor
134		Not to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na without the consent of her parents and husband
135		Not to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na who is grieving over love
136		Not to break the promise to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na after training her to be ordained
137		Not to promise to ordain a "siik.samĀ.na after accepting fabric for a robe
138		Not to ordain two "siik.samĀ.nas in the same year as a preceptor
139		Not to let a day pass to be approved by the Bhik.su Sa"ngha after ordination of bhik.su.niis
140		Not to miss the exhortation or the preaching of Dharma from the Bhik.su Sa"ngha except in case of illness
141		Not to miss Observance Day(130) and exhortation in every half month
142		After the rainy season retreat, bhik.su.niis should participate in the special meeting of both sa"nghas to discuss these three matters: what was seen, heard, or suspected
143		Not to spend the rainy season retreat at a residence where there are no signs of bhik.sus
144		Not to enter a bhik.su monastery without asking bhik.sus for permission
145		Not to revile or abuse a bhik.su
146		Not to revile a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure
147		Not to let a man squeeze an ulcer
148		Not to eat again after eating
149		Not to be jealous of lay followers
150		Not to spray perfume on the body
151		Not to rub with perilla oil
152		Not to be rubbed or massaged by a bhik.su.nii with perilla oil
153		Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a "siik.samĀ.na
154		Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a "srĀma.nerii(131) (female novice)
155		Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a woman
156		Not to wear a petticoat
157		Not to have women's ornaments
158		Not to wear a sunshade or sandals, except in case of illness
159		Not to go in a vehicle, except in case of illness
160		Not to enter a village without wearing a vest
161		Not to enter a lay person's house without invitation
162		Not to leave the monastery after sunset, leaving the door open wide without telling a bhik.su.nii
163		Not to leave the monastery after sunset, leaving the door open wide without telling anyone
164		Observe the rainy season retreats which come twice a year, except in case of illness
165		Not to ordain an idiot(132)
166		Not to ordain a hermaphrodite
167		Not to ordain a woman who does not have two distinct exits for bodily waste
168		Not to ordain a woman who is a debtor or has serious illness
169		Not to live with worldly knowledge
170		Not to teach worldly knowledge to lay people
171		Not to stay at the monastery after getting driven out by the sa"ngha
172		Not to suddenly ask a question to a bhik.su without his permission
173		Not to disturb a bhik.su.nii who has lived at the monastery previously
174		Not to build a bhik.su.nii's pagoda at the bhik.su monastery
175		Greet respectfully and do proper homage to a bhik.su ordained that very day even though a bhik.su.nii has been ordained for a hundred years
176		Not to prance around with a haughty attitude
177		Not to wear ornaments like a lady
178		Not to let a female wanderer rub or spray the body with perfume

As we see in the table number seven, seventy-one rules for bhik.su.niis are shared with bhik.sus. The rules in this category are extremely divergent in their contents and may appear somewhat arbitrary; however; an examination of the contents of the rules yields several major groups. In order to closely examine the wide range of the rules embracing various aspects of bhik.su.niis' lives, the pĀyantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis may roughly be classified as pertaining to the following groups:

TABLE NO. 8

An Overview of the PĀyantika Dharmas(133)

Classification of Offense	Numbers of Rules Concerning this Category of Offense	Total of Rules Concerning this Category	Rules for Bhik.suniis Only
Ordination	119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126, 127,134,135,165,166,167, 168	15	14
Clothes	44,45,102,103,104,105, 106,107, 108,109,110,114, 156,160	14	12
Ornament and skin care	71,150,151,152,153,154, 155,157,158,177,178	11	11
Qualifications and responsibilities of a preceptor	128,130,131,132,133,136,137,138	9	9
Actions around men	9,30,80,81,82,86,147	7	6
Playful conduct	37,38,43,48,73,74,77,78,79	9	6
Public conduct	83,84,85,99,161,176	6	6
Exhortation on Observance Day and the rainy season retreat	140,141,142,143,164	5	5
Travel	51,67,95,96,97,98,159	7	5
Etiquette with bhik.sus	75,144,145,172	4	4
Food	21,22,23,24,25,26, 27,31,76,112,148	11	3
Passionate quarreling	17,40,61,62,63,64,94,146	8	2
Cursing	88,89	2	2
Sharing a bed or blanket	90,91	2
Bathing	41,72,101	3
Incantation